Imagination vs. Obsession in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein Essay

In Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, the author expresses how man can lose touch with reality, which leads to becoming a victim of his own imagination. Since Romantic writers, like Shelley, exalted the power of imagination, Shelley criticizes this ideal by showing how it may lead to obsession. The influence of Mary Shelley’s parents, other writers, such as her husband Percy Shelley and Byron, and the use of Gothic novel literature help her emphasize imagination, the concern with the particular, the value of the individual human being, and the supernatural. Mary Shelley’s parents were famous writers and intellectuals in England. Her father was a philosopher and novelist named William Goodwin, who encouraged her early intellectual endeavors, but remained emotionally distant and self-involved. This figure in her life might have been an influence when creating the character of Frankenstein, which is also self-involved. Her mother was Mary Wollstonecraft, which was the first and most influential feminist writer in England in her times. Her mother may also have been an influence to her literature because she might have been encouraged. The other influence is Mary’s husband, Percy Shelley, who entertained with tales of the supernatural. Percy Shelley was an intellectual who had the fullest of philosophical speculation. His imaginative and eccentric manner put him out of touch with his feelings and needs of those around him. This can be inspiring for Mary Shelley’s novel, since his main character loses sense of reality. With the knowledge of the Romantic ideals and her influence, Mary Shelley criticizes the excess of imagination in the novel. Shelley tells us about a scientist named Victor Frankenstein who is eccentric and believes he is the only man who can create man. She uses this character to â€Å"mock the stupendous mechanism of the Creator of the world†. The author expresses Frankenstein’s ambition and high self-esteem at the beginning of Chapter IV of the novel when Victor says, â€Å"My application was at first fluctuating and uncertain; it gained strength as I proceeded, and soon became so ardent and eager.†(p.588)  The fact that Frankenstein makes this statement demonstrates that his pride is taking over reality. Frankenstein also believes he can create what is supernatural, as if he is God. This is shown when he tells us, â€Å"Unless I had been animated by an almost supernatural enthusiasm, my application to this study would have been irksome, and almost intolera ble.†(p.589) Shelley is telling us how man thinks he can be superior when imagining, which leads to obsession. Shelley keeps telling us about Frankenstein’s pride and egocentrism when the scientist says, â€Å"among so many men of genius who had directed their enquiries towards the same science, that I should alone be reserved to discover so astonishing a secret.†(p.589) Frankenstein is already losing his mind because of the supernatural ability he has, and starts losing touch with reality. Shelley is now making us see how Frankenstein believes â€Å"the creation of the world is within his grasp† (p.589) and how he uses imagination as the power of creation. After being confident with his power of creation, Shelley demonstrates how Frankenstein himself starts realizing how imagination is taking over him. We can see that Frankenstein notices this when stating, â€Å"I could tear my thoughts from my employment†¦but which had taken an irresistible hold of my imagination.†(p.591) The scientist expresses how he does nothing else, but work on his creation. He tries to justify his excessive desire by telling us, â€Å"if no man allowed any pursuit whatsoever to interfere with the tranquility of his domestic affections, Greece had not been enslaved†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (p.591) and other historic events that would not have happened if man did not work for it, like him. Shelley then shows at the end of Chapter V that Frankenstein is anxious, and describes his creation as a â€Å"catastrophe† (p.592). Afterwards, Shelley tells us that Frankenstein states, â€Å"I had desired it with an ardor that exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart.†(p.592) With this statement, Mary Shelley shows us how after all the imagination and desire, Frankenstein is not satisfied with his creation. Finally, the scientist knows he lost touch with reality and needs to ease the load in his mind after creating the monster. In the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, the author shows us how the scientist Victor Frankenstein loses touch with reality at the end of the story, after an imagination that led to his obsession of creating life. After Victor  Frankenstein is confident, egocentric, and believes he has supernatural powers to create life, he regrets his creation because he recognizes how he dedicated much of his life to this work, but it was not worth it. Mary Shelley teaches us the lesson that if we are obsessed with something we want to achieve, we may end up losing touch of the real world around us. Bibliography Shelley, Mary. â€Å"Frankenstein or the Modern Prometheus†. Adventures in English Literature Athena, Austin: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1996. Print

Philosophy

What do you think philosophy is? I understand philosophy as something which answers questions to humans who seek for wisdom. When you study Philosophy, the negative thing about this Is that you don't get to know all the answers as you go through the process of learning because philosophy talks about life and life unfortunately has handed us a numerous unanswerable questions. Philosophy has also had the negative sense of a subject full of Idle speculation, useless to the practical business of finding things out and consisting mostly In Irrelevant theorizing.I suppose Philosophy Is trying to answer mysteries about life. However, these mysteries are beyond what human mind can perceive. Philosophy makes people think excessively before acting on It. It simply acquaints us with the fact that Philosophy is ‘love for wisdom'. 2. What is your philosophy in life? â€Å"Never settle for anything less† I suppose that there will always be something ahead of where you are now. And if that something has the ability to be ahead of you, why can't you be as well? The only thing that limits us from doing something better from what we're doing now is none other than ourselves.I can't afford to be in a â€Å"less† situation when I know I have all the guts to be â€Å"more†. The point here is not to overpower someone or to be ahead of something on purpose, the point is that to be aware that we can do more than our minds can perceive. It's Just a matter of encouraging yourself and some touch of optimism. One day, we would be surprise of what not-settling-for-less has done to our life. Life has more to offer all we have to do is to search for it. We can't just settle. The worth of life is dependent upon us. The meaning of life is how we give life a meaning. By Magical 1. What do you think philosophy is? r wisdom. When you study Philosophy, the negative thing about this is that you don't get to know all the answers as you go through the process of learning be cause of idle speculation, useless to the practical business of finding things out and consisting mostly in irrelevant theorizing. I suppose Philosophy is trying to answer perceive. Philosophy makes people think excessively before acting on it. It simply that something has the ability to be ahead of you, why can't you be as well? Philosophy What do you think philosophy is? I understand philosophy as something which answers questions to humans who seek for wisdom. When you study Philosophy, the negative thing about this Is that you don't get to know all the answers as you go through the process of learning because philosophy talks about life and life unfortunately has handed us a numerous unanswerable questions. Philosophy has also had the negative sense of a subject full of Idle speculation, useless to the practical business of finding things out and consisting mostly In Irrelevant theorizing.I suppose Philosophy Is trying to answer mysteries about life. However, these mysteries are beyond what human mind can perceive. Philosophy makes people think excessively before acting on It. It simply acquaints us with the fact that Philosophy is ‘love for wisdom'. 2. What is your philosophy in life? â€Å"Never settle for anything less† I suppose that there will always be something ahead of where you are now. And if that something has the ability to be ahead of you, why can't you be as well? The only thing that limits us from doing something better from what we're doing now is none other than ourselves.I can't afford to be in a â€Å"less† situation when I know I have all the guts to be â€Å"more†. The point here is not to overpower someone or to be ahead of something on purpose, the point is that to be aware that we can do more than our minds can perceive. It's Just a matter of encouraging yourself and some touch of optimism. One day, we would be surprise of what not-settling-for-less has done to our life. Life has more to offer all we have to do is to search for it. We can't just settle. The worth of life is dependent upon us. The meaning of life is how we give life a meaning. By Magical 1. What do you think philosophy is? r wisdom. When you study Philosophy, the negative thing about this is that you don't get to know all the answers as you go through the process of learning be cause of idle speculation, useless to the practical business of finding things out and consisting mostly in irrelevant theorizing. I suppose Philosophy is trying to answer perceive. Philosophy makes people think excessively before acting on it. It simply that something has the ability to be ahead of you, why can't you be as well? Philosophy Philosophy of Teaching Philosophy is described as â€Å"one of the various established or traditional way of looking at the world that have been defined and indentified by those who practice the discipline whether in the academy or not. † With any profession there are responsibilities that come with the career, in my chosen career path there are people that I have to make sure that I reach; students, parents, the Physical Education department, and the school systems. The two philosophies that first come to mind when thinking about physical ducation are idealism and realism.The philosophers that created idealism are Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato along with the creators of realism whose founders are John Locke, Herbert Spencer, among others. These philosophers were the founding men of philosophy and have created a theory that other generations behind them could follow and dream with. Idealism's philosophy is about fair play, sportsmanship, obedience to rules, classroom lectures and assignments, which relies on direction and guidance. Realism's philosophy describes more of the focus of anatomy, bodily ovement, statistics, and the technicalities of the body.In taking the VOI Personality Profile, I was able to see that my personal preference for structure, knowledge, classroom lectures and assignments, and direction and guidance closely align with idealism and realism. I have always thought that I was more in line with eclecticism, but once I did the profile I was able to see that is a point of teaching that I need to work on. I believe that I have the personality of one that does not Just conform to one nd is able to adapt to different situations and theories that come with a lot of philosophies.In high school, I was always the athlete that helped the teacher structure the class, introduce new sports, and be an example of what a healthy teenager looks like. Not only was that fun for me, but it showed me that I could be a positive example for others around m e. At the high school that I went to there was a â€Å"student-teaching† class that was offered to Juniors and seniors that allowed us to go into the lementary schools and teach physical education and other subjects that the students needed to be tutored in.It allowed me to go into the school and feel like I was making a difference in the students that I was teachings lives. Knowing that I had students that depended on me for guidance was enough to make up my mind that I wanted a career in teaching. Although most people think that physical education teachers Just roll out the balls and say â€Å"play basketball† that's not what goes on. There is a lot more that goes into he education that the teacher does along with all of the lesson plans and the science and health that the teacher has to teach to their class as well.Teaching physical education does not constrict you to solely teaching physical education but it more so about teaching and being an example of what a hea lthy life is, physically, mentally, and emotionally. Physical educators are more so about the whole body versus Just the content knowledge and end of the year exams. It becomes very evident that most physical education teachers do not get the recognition that they deserve.Most schools are going into more â€Å"chair-based† learning where the child does not have an outlet to get out of the setting of the classroom and into the playground or even into the gym; which poses a problem for physical education teachers. Will there be a Job for physical education teachers when I graduate? I believe that the answer to that question is yes, for the simple fact that medicine, fitness and wellness, and the entire aspect of physical activity cannot and will not be pushed over to the curb.

It Is Not the Power but Fear of Loosing

â€Å"It is not power that corrupts but fear. Fear of losing power corrupts those who wield it and fear of scourge of power corrupts those who are subject to it†. (Aung San Suu Kyi’s speech on Freedom from Fear) â€Å"Power has only one duty –to secure the social welfare of the people† Disraeli Benjamin. However, the reality is somewhat different. History has led us to conclusions where those in power dominated over the weaker ones and used their supremacy to carry out immoral actions.Keeping such views under consideration, the norm that power, the authority to rule over and influence a group, tends to corrupt an individual as power brings an individual closer to his desires and grants him unquestionable authority. What is of more significance in corrupting a person is the fear of losing the power, the influence that one holds because fear takes away the ability to discriminate between right and wrong which results in immorality of actions.Humans act close to the theory of opportunism, and are motivated by self-interests without considering the values of their actions. Therefore, it is obvious that when one attains power, the person is attracted towards material necessities since being in power brings a person, closer to the fulfillment of his desires. The influence of being powerful allows people to manipulate the circumstances to suit their own needs. It is important to relate to William Jefferson in this scenario. W.Jefferson is a former American congressman who has been included in CREW’S report 2006 (Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington  (CREW) is a  nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization  that describes itself as â€Å"dedicated to promoting ethics and accountability in government and public life by targeting government officials – regardless of party affiliation – who sacrifice the common good to special interests) as being a corrupt politician. Jefferson has been accused for getting invol ved in attaining financial benefits through illegal means.For instance, Jefferson accepted bribes from multiple firms in exchange, introduced the firm to Congressmen and other business officials and used his influence as a member of congress to support those firms in their corporate goals. The bribe received was used to finance Jefferson family business. However, members of the congress as Jefferson may fear the time mandate since they are appointed for a definite period of time after which they might not remain in power.Such a fear makes an individual to think about would the person have enough with themselves once they do not hold power to live a good life. Thus, a person based on the concept of opportunism, would try to make as much wealth as possible within the time span, keeping in consideration that once out of power, the opportunity to accumulate wealth would no longer be available. The word â€Å"power† is often interpreted in terms of a person, having unquestionable authority. The person who holds power may not be answerable to anyone and therefore may enjoy supremacy.Such individual creates a cult of personality and thus earn themselves, honorable titles to further exaggerate their influence. Within this notion of supremacy and unquestionable authority, individuals tend to waiver towards the path of corruption in order to maintain their influence. There are countless examples where leaders such as Stalin have been criticized for killing thousands of innocent people and pursuing other actions that by no means justify themselves. Stalin ruled as a dictator, with absolute power.Was it the unquestionable authority acting behind the misdeeds of Stalin? What is important here to consider is the force acting behind Stalin, the force which historians titled as insecurity? People had started to question his authority and showed criticism towards his five years plan that was developed to enhance economic potential. Further, members from his own party st arted to criticize Stalin’s leadership. Considering the rising oppositions, Stalin passed a law which levied a death penalty on anyone who was found plotting against the government.This law was just the beginning of the great purges that Stalin later carried out to secure his position. The purges include the trial of sixteen, trial of seventeen and trial of twenty one and the common element of all these trials was the execution of all the members who were rising against Stalin. The intensity of the fears he had developed turned clear with the assassination of Sergei Kirov. Sergei Kirov used to be a close supporter of Stalin and Stalin treated Kirov as his son.However, when Kirov refused to conform to Stalin’s authority, he was eliminated just as all the others before him. Later, a constitution, which reinforced his political position, was passed that was to prevent uprisings in the future. Although this allowed Stalin to regain his political strength but that came at t he expense of economic downfall, weakened army and loss of numerous lives. Thus, what seems to be the consequences of unquestionable authority in reality sneaks out of fear that developed in Stalin to counter his oppositions to reinforce his supremacy. To come under siege†¦. was the inevitable fate of power† Frank Herbert, Dune Messiah. However, when one fears of losing the authority and influence, such people are no more concerned of morality of their behavior, and all of their actions are directed towards securing the authoritative place. Fear is a very strong force which exists in nature of the living being. It can and does produce alternate behavioral phenomenon in not just the human kind but also across other kingdoms; certain kinds of female snake would eat their own eggs because of the fear of an attack.Lizards cut-off their own tails when a predator attacks to distract it while it escapes. These traits have been described by scientists as characteristics conferrin g an advantage and allowing them to survive. Man, nature’s most evolved product, obviously possesses a similar in-built survival instinct which has enabled it to dominate nature’s landscape since it came into existence especially with its enhanced and complex social ability. Imagine a situation in which a group of people is under attack. Would they hurt or kill the intruders or would they be nice to them? NO.They would definitely attack the intruders to protect their power and authority even at the expense of immorality found in their actions. This is genuinely supported by the incidents that occurred in Musharraf’s regime. The early years of his rule witnessed calmness in terms of law and order of the country. However, what became the turning point of his regime was the fear, he developed when the circumstances turned against him and his presidency came under threat after the Lal Mosque incident. His actions were no more bounded by constitutional laws and what mattered to him was the maintenance of power.The illegal deposition of chief justice of Pakistan and attacks on judiciary in which several protestors were tortured, contest for presidency while still holding the status of army chief in 2007 and attack on a channel’s headoffice are examples of incidents where, to maintain power, a leader as Musharraf did not remain concern whether his actions were justified or not. Apart from this, fear can result in alternate behavioral phenomenon as mentioned earlier in the text. This might result in a complete different response to a situation by an individual under certain circumstances.The historical event that took place in Egypt just before the birth of Moses is a demonstration of the same phenomenon. The pharaoh of Egypt feared losing his power at the hands of the growing number of Israelites. His fears aggravated when a group of astronomers informed the pharaoh that a male Israelite child would bear who would throw the pharaoh’ s kingdom. Keeping in consideration the patriarchal societies that have persisted for long, pharaoh ordered all the new born male children to be murdered. This was certainly not normal.In societies such as Egypt, where male dominated every sphere of life and where they were ranked far above women, it was the fear of losing his power that caused the pharaoh to act even against the conventions of the Egyptian society. In relation to the text, it is evident that corruption does not branch out of power itself. Rather it is the fear, the thought of losing the superiority and charisma that one has developed over time, which leads a person towards unjustifiable means to protect and maintain his authority.The struggle to maintain power out of the fear of losing it has led to disastrous consequences for the humanity over the years. What influential people need to consider now is that though a lot of damage has been done, it is time to consolidate. Accepting the temporary nature of power and carrying out the assigned responsibilities that the authoritative position endorse one with would allow the humanity to be protected against ill consequences. Work Cited â€Å"Benjamin Disraeli and the Two Nation Divide. †Ã‚  The Victorian Web: An Overview. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. http://www. victorianweb. org/authors/disraeli/diniejko3. tml Pakistan Weekly. â€Å"Musharraf Trial. †Ã‚  Project. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. http://musharraftrial. net/ Ariela Pelaia. â€Å"The Passover (Pesach)A  Story. †Ã‚  About. com Judaism. Web. 9 Mar. 2012. http://judaism. about. com/od/holidays/a/The-Passover-Pesach-Story. htm â€Å"Stalin's Russia. †Ã‚  ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation. Web. 11 Mar. 2012. . John Simkin†The Great Purge. †Ã‚  Spartacus Educational. Web. 11 Mar. 2012. . Dr. Lawrence Britt†A  Fourteen Defining Characteristics Of Fascism.   A  Fourteen Defining Characteristics Of Fascism. Web. 06 Mar. 2012. ;http://www. rense. com/general37/char. htm;. â€Å"Hitler, Stalin and Macbeth. †Ã‚  Angelfire. com. Web. 06 Mar. 2012. ;http://www. angelfire. com/ma/totalitarianism/essay1. html;. Crew Org. â€Å"Beyond Delay. †Ã‚  Citizenforethics. org. Web. 13 Mar. 2012. ;http://www. citizensforethics. org/page/-/PDFs/Reports/Most%20;. Doug,†The Trouble WithA  Power. †Ã‚  Japan and Korea: Life, Language and Religion. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. ;http://japanlifeandreligion. com/2010/11/07/the-trouble-with-power/;.

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Culture and Technology-Sheila Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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Conventional Photography as Contemporary Art Essay

Conventional Photography as Contemporary Art - Essay Example The essay "Conventional Photography as Contemporary Art" discovers the Snapshot photography's evolution and contemporary photography. At this point in time, photography was a rare luxury – the rich and the famous and the wealthy could afford to hire professional photographers who would capture moments in time. One of the essential traits of such photography was its propriety. The photographs reflected photographic talent and an unwritten standard which was followed throughout the industry. For example, photographs dating back to this period often depict people either standing up straight or sitting down properly with a smile perched on their faces. Given that photography was both esoteric and expensive, it was treated as a rarity. Though it was undeniably art but it was more or less sacrosanct art that bowed to the doctrines of the commercial photographer of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Everything had to be â€Å"picture perfect† for it to become pie ce of art and history through the lens. Only rarely can one find photographs from this era that are more spontaneous in nature. One of the essential elements that made photography popular was its instantaneous nature – the object of the picture did not have to pose in studios for eons in order to get the picture painted. Instead one could just stand till the flash of the camera assured you that you were part of history. his also meant that photography was able to capture the more instantaneous things in life such as a child crying. or someone laughing. However the early photographic traditions did not consider this mode of thinking about photography popular. Hence, the common man had to wait for George Eastman to appear with his Kodak #1 before things began to change. (Fineman, 2004) Kodak’s #1 was a pure marvel – anyone with a bug for photography could purchase a camera, click a few pictures and send it to Rochester, New York in order to get the pictures develo ped. The technological advances coupled with Kodak’s brilliant marketing strategy soon led to the rise of â€Å"shutterbug† or amateur photographers. Kodak’s marketing slogan clearly said: â€Å"You press the button, we do the rest.† The actual story was very similar too. Within ten years of Kodak’s introduction of the personal camera, some 1.5 million rolls of film had been sold to amateur photographers alone. This had quite a few implications but most notable of all it made everyone who could own a camera a photographer. (Ford & Steinorth, 1988) The Kodak Brownie set a new standard for simple amateur photography that was soon branded as â€Å"snapshot† photography. Snapshot as it was used was a pejorative term and indicated that a photograph was amateur. It could be because the camera was out of focus, the background was not well framed, the subject of the picture was acting how he would in normal life or simply because it was the work of a â€Å"snap shooter†. Although amateur photography had taken deep root but art based circles were quick to react to such changes and took snapshot photography as an offense to fine art. 3. Early Opposition to Snapshot Photography A variety of clubs consisting of amateur photographers in the early twentieth century took it as their duty to promote photography as an art and not as the work of anyone who could handle a camera. The more vocal of these organisations in the United States was the Photo-Secession that was founded in 1902 by Alfred Stieglitz who was a well

Moral Principle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Organizational behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational behavior - Essay Example When first considering the new training program, it must be understood that â€Å"cultural issues will have a significant bearing on how your presentation is received† (Anton, 2007, p.1). Culture is a very important aspect behind how your chosen audience, both national and international, will embrace what is being discussed by the presenter. For example, it is understood that in the United States, there is a social trend to illustrate rather casual behavior within the organization which can sometimes be considered too casual with certain international audiences (media.wiley.com, 2006). In the United States, there is largely an individualistic culture, which can be defined as members of the organization who â€Å"value independence, self-expression and have beliefs that personal goals and interests are more important than group goals† (Blodgett, Bakir and Rose, 2008, p.339). When presenting a training concept to an individualistic culture, like the United States, the rec eiving audience is likely going to appreciate discussing aspects of performance management which identifies certain rewards for the individual’s contribution to meeting organizational objectives. A training program which is being discussed or presented for approval by the domestic audience will likely be appreciated and well-received by the audience so long as it appeals to individualistic goals. For instance, it might be offered that there will be a certain incentive given for completion of a comprehensive training program. In the international culture, which might be more collectivist, a culture which values group affiliation more than individual contribution to project or organizational goals, a more group-focused training program might wish to be presented to gain the audience’s attention. Collectivists â€Å"tend to view themselves as members of an extended family and will place group interests ahead of individual needs and

The Effect Of Corruption On Taxtation System Essay Example for Free

The Effect Of Corruption On Taxtation System Essay Introduction: The Federal government to collect taxes on income other than agriculture income, taxes on capital value, custom, excise duties and sale taxes. In the modern age, corruption is found in almost all the countries of the world. It has been found in all the ages, like an incurable diseases. It has a great crime against the member of the society. Corruption in the tax administration is a two way process. For each corrupt employee, there is a corrupt private sector person who is corrupt either willingly or under duress. Findings in 2001 suggest that a large majority of the private sector justifies non-payment of the taxes because of the simple non-performance of the government in its duties. Many respondents to the survey mentioned other countries where the state ensures provision of inadequate quality infrastructure as health, education, social security, roads and above all security of life and property. Corruption cannot be viewed in isolaton, as it is a part of the broader issue of governance and public management. The quality of a country s’ governance is a critical factor for its development process. It is thus surprising how very small attention is given to one of the most fundamental way that public revenue are raised. Developing countries are typically unable to generate sufficient amount of revenue from taxation because these countries face a number of institutional problems in the process of revenue generation. One of the main problems is corruption in tax administration and tax system reforms (Brondolo,et al.(2008). The quality of governance as a whole is also relevant in this context. It is agreed that the presence of tax system and corruption of public officials is a social phenomena that can significantly reduce tax revenue and seriously hurt economics growth and development. We feel that overlooking them will make any corruption reduction in the tax administration. Hence, even if we cannot change anything in this area, it is our duty to take the decision makers about the very important rule that the play in encouraging and sustaining corruption in the tax administration. Various studies try to investigate the determinants of tax revenue [e.g.,Teera(2003);weiss (1969);Tanzi and zee (2000) and imam and jacobs (2007) .Imam and Jacobs (2007) explain that real per capita income, share of agriculture in GDP, trade openness, inflation and corruption are the most important determinants of tax collection. Gupta (2007) finds that several structural factors like per capita GDP share of agriculture in GDP trade openness foreign aid, foreign debt and some new institutional variable like corruption and political stability are statistically and strong determinants of revenue performance. Pakistan’s Taxation System Federal taxes in Pakistan like most of the taxation systems in the world are classified into two broad categories, viz., direct and indirect taxes. A broad description regarding the nature of administration of these taxes is explained below: Direct Taxes Direct taxes primarily comprise income tax, along with supplementary role of wealth tax. For the purpose of the charge of tax and the total income, all income is classified under the following heads: †¢ Salaries †¢ Interest on securities; †¢ Income from property; †¢ Income from business or professions †¢ Capital gains; and income from other sources. Personal Tax All individuals, unregistered firms, associations of persons, etc., are liable to tax, at the rates rending from 10 to 35 per cent. Tax on Companies All public companies (other than banking companies) incorporated in Pakistan are assessed for tax at corporate rate of 39%. However, the effective rate is likely to differ on account of allowances and related to industry, location, exports, etc. Inter-Corporate Dividend Tax Tax on the dividends received by a public company from a Pakistan company is payable at the rate of 5% and at the rate of 15% in case dividends are received by a foreign company. Inter-corporate dividends declared or distributed by power generation companies is subject to reduced rate of tax i.e., 7.5%. Other companies are taxed at the rate of 20%. Dividends paid to all non-company shareholders by the companies are subject to with holding tax of 10% which is treated as a full and final discharge of tax liability in respect of this source of income. Treatment of Dividend Income: Dividend income received as below enjoys tax exemption, provided it does not exceed Rs. 10,000/-. Objective: The main objective of these is to increase the efficiency of tax administration, specifically by reducing corruption and taxation system. Literature review: Sandamo (2004) defines the concept of systemm in the following words.†Tax system is a violation of the law: when the taxpayer from reporting income from labour or capital which is in principal taxable, he engages in an illegal activity that makes him liable to administrative or legal action from the authorities.† Various studies explain that collection of tax revenue is one of the important areas where corruption is most likely to arise [Galtung (1995); Li (1997); Toye and Moore (1998); Tanzi (2000); and Tungodden (2003). Fjeldstad (2005) examines the experience of the Uganda Revenue authority (URA) in controlling fiscal corruption. The study concludes that several factors have contributed to the unsatisfactory results of the URA. The study also explains that pay level of employees in URA is one of the several factors affecting the behavior of tax officers. Fjeldstad and Bertil (2001) explain that this paradox does not justify policies to stimulate corruption. It analyses that in the short corruption may raise tax revenue but in the long run the opposite will be the case. with high Tanzi and Dvoodi (1997) have provided evidence that countries level of corruption tend to have lower collection of tax revenues in relation to GDP. The implication is that some of the taxes paid by taxpayers are diverted away from public accounts. Tanzi(1999) argues that a distinction needs to be made between taxes collected by the tax administrators and taxes received by the treasury. Sanyal, et al. (1998) investigates the relationship between corruption, tax system and laffer curve. The study explain that a corrupt tax administration leads to laffer curve behavior (a higher tax rate leads to a smaller net revenue). The study explain that â€Å"net revenue earned from a truth revealing audit probability always exceeds net revenue through audits, taxes, and penalties in the cheating region†. Hadi (2006) has taken an effort to see the relationship between corruption and tax evasion. This study analysis that how bribery affects tax evasion. It also explains how tax-payers would be tending to pay bribes to maximize their expected income. The study used three different groups of people, individual taxpayers, tax collectors, and inspectors. The results shows that size of bribe negatively affect the tax evasion. Chand and Karl (1999) examined the issue to control fiscal corruption by providing incentives to fiscal officers. A model is developed to expose the incentives effect. This study explains the importance of organizational setup and conditions of service of fiscal officers. The study concludes that corruption has to be done due to low wages and other social circumstances. Phillps and sandal (2008) explains the relationship between governance and tax reforms. The study explains that three key dynamics reflects the relationship between governance, taxation and investment climate. Firstly good tax system positively depends on good governance. Secondly a fair domestic taxation system promotes good governance because benefit tax system allows population to pay fairly. Aizenman and yothin (2005) explains that collection efficiency is determined by the penalty on underpaying and probability of audit. Their main purpose is to prove the dependence of VAT collections efficiency on some key structural and political economy factor, The study shows that collection efficiency of the value added is affected by economic structure that increase the cost of enforcement. The collection efficiency reduces with less urbanization, less trade openness and higher share of agriculture. Conclusions: *The study concludes that governance and corruption are two main determinant of tax revenue. *Corruption has adverse effect on tax collection, while good governance contributes to better performance in tax collection. * The study concludes that corruption has negative effect on tax revenues. * In developing countries tax revenue collection depends on efficiency of government. Thus the accountability , political stability , government effectiveness, regulatory quality , rule of law and control of corruption and are important factors in determining tax revenues in developing countries. * An improved tax to GDP ratio can be achieved by using a combination of good governance, improved tax administration, good macroeconomics policies and other discretionary tax measures. Policy implications: *As confidance building measure to address tax payers concern. Government must demonstrate genuine authority at the top level, arrange public of tax return of ruling elite, some percentage of taxes revenues for specific social sectors, and create a demonstrable linkage between revenue generation and development expenditure of an area. *Separate tax assessment and adjudication. *Maximum authority to tax administration. *Policy implications for governments internationally when consideration is given to the issue of effective administrations. Efforts need to be made by governments to make improvements to the governance ( voice and accountability, political stability , government effectiveness, regulatory quality , rule of law and control of corruption) as a starting point. *Fiscal corruption in the tax administration is reduced by required laws, which are enforced by independent and efficient judicial system. *Democratic political institutions are in place, taxpayers are allowed to freely express their opinion about the tax system, so tax administrations should become more transparent and publicaly accountable, hence fiscal corruption is more easily exposed. *Developing countries need actively to strive to reduce the opportunities of corruption in tax administration and change in incentive structure for tax officials. *International donors like IMF may benefit in achieving its objectives if its adopt eradication of corruption as the prime component of conditionalities’.which are almost always attatched to their programmes of soft loans. *Business process reengineering should minimum tax payers/tax collectors interaction , simplified system and rules , reduced discretionary power s, Strengthened monitoring ad accountability, and increase transparency. References: Acconcia, A.,M.D’Amato, and R.Martina (2003) Tax Evasion and Corruptionn in Tax Administration Journal of public Economics. Aizenman, J. and Y.Jinjarak (2005) The Collection Efficiency of the value Added Tax: Theory and international Evidence. Alm J.,R.W. Bahl and M.N. Murrey (1991) Tax Base Erosion in Developing Countries . Bird, Richard (2004) societal institiutions and Tax Effort in Developing Countries. Gupta, S.A (2007) Determinants of Tax Revenue Effort in Developing Countries . Phillips, M. and R.Sandall (2008) Linking Business Tax Reforms with Goverance. Tanzi, V. and H.Zee (2001) Tax policy for Developing Countries. Tanzi, Vito (2000) Taxtation in the last Decade.Centre for Research on Economics Development and Policy Reforms. Tanzi, V. And H.Zee (2000) Tax policy for Emerging Markets: Developing Countries. Washington , DC: International Monetatry Fund.

New Drug Application of Paclitaxel: Results Discussion

New Drug Application of Paclitaxel: Results Discussion The present research work is an attempt made to design and development of a new drug application for of Paclitaxel sustained release microspheres by using ionic Gelation and solvent evaporation methods is to achieve first order to improve bioavailability and reduce side effects of paclitaxel. For this purpose different polymers like HPMC K100, EUDRAGIT RS100, ETHYL CELLULOSE, and in combination were used. Based on the above investigational reports. I concluded the following results and discussions. 7.1. Preformulation Studies: The reports indicate the exhibit good and passable flow properties. So there is no need to improve the flow of the powder. The regression value obtained from analytical method development in buffer media is 0.999.so, the drug is exhibiting linearity in concentration 2ug to 10 ug.The FT-IR spectral studies indicate good stability and no chemical interaction between the drugs and excipients used. 7.1.1. Identification of paclitaxel In identification of API it was found that paclitaxel was soluble in methanol, ethanol, acetone 7.2 Stability studies 7.2.1. – Photo stability: When paclitaxel was exposed to light for a period of 2 months (60days) it was found that 0.2% of the drug was degraded. 7.2.2. Acidic degradation When the drug was exposed in acidic medium 0.1N HCL for a period of 24 hrs , it was found that there is no degradation of the drug in alkaline mediums showing 100% stability in the acidic medium. 7.2.3. Alkaline degradation: When the drug was exposed in different alkaline mediums like phosphate buffer 7.4 for a period of 24 hrs, it was found that there is no degradation of the drug in alkaline mediums showing 100% stability in alkaline medium. 7.2.4 Temperature stress conditions: When the drug was exposed to different temperatures (00C, 100C, 200C, 300C, 350C, 450C and 500C, 600C) for a time period of 1hr, 3hr, 6hr, 12hr, 24hr, was found that there is no degradation of the drug in Temperature stress conditions. 7. 3.Solubility studies: Solubility of paclitaxel: Paclitaxel is soluble in methanol, ethanol, acetone etc;.paclitaxel is in soluble in water Melting Point: It was also found Melting point of paclitaxel was 2160c, Density: On analyzing for density it was found that paclitaxel showed bulk density value 0.593gm/ml and tapped density value 0.514 gm/ml, Carr’s Index: The value of Carr’s Index for 13.32 and drugs showed good flow characteristics Compressibility Index: The value of Compressibility Index for was 14.28, and drugs showed good characteristics. Hausner’s ratio: The value of Hausner’s ratio for paclitaxel was 1.16 drugs showed good flow characteristics. Angle of Repose: The studies on angle of repose showed that was 26.83 values indicated good flow properties. Stability studies FTIR studies: From the FTIR spectra, it was concluded that similar characteristic peaks with minor difference for the drug and their formulation. Hence, it appears that there was no chemical interaction between the drugs and excipients used. The IR Spectra of paclitaxel with HPMC K100, Eudragit Rs100, Ethyl cellulose were shown in figs. The following peaks were observed in as well as paclitaxel with excipients. EVALUATION OF MICROSPHERES: Determination of percentage yield: The percentage yield was estimated from all the 18 formulations the results obtained between the range 86.03 %to 76.56%.all the formulation was found within the limits. Drug entrapment efficiency: The drug entrapment of all formulation of paclitaxel microspheres varied from 86.19 to 67.38 Particle size analysis: The particle size of the microspheres of the paclitaxel formulations varied from 836  µm to 191 µm. In vitro drug release studies: The formulation F1, F4, F7 contains HPMC K 100,Eudragit Rs100, Ethyl cellulose, as a polymers in 1% concentration prepared by ionic gelation method. These formulations subjected to drug release studies in 7.4 ph phosphate buffer as a dissolution medium. The formulation F1 that containing 1% HPMC K100, amount of the drug is release 36.92% in 48 hrs. . And the formulation F4 containing 1% Eudragit Rs 100, amount of the drug release 43.92 in 48hrs, The formulation F7 containing 1 % Ethyl cellulose , amount of the drug release 68.96 in 48hrs. The formulation F2 that containing 20mg HPMC k 100, 10mg, Eudragit Rs 100, amount of drug is release 41.73 in 48hr. the formulation F3containing 10mg Ethyl cellulose, 20mg HPMC K 100, amount of drug release 46.98 in 48 hrs.the formulation F5 containing 20mg Eudragit Rs100, 10mgHPMC K 100 amount of drug release 50.24 in 48 hrs. the formulation F6 containing 20mg Eudragit, 10mgEthyl cellulose amount of drug release53.28 in 48hrs. The formulation F8 that containing 10mg HPMC k 100, 20mgEthyl cellulose, amount of drug is release 63.24 in 48hrs, the formulation F9containing 20mgEthyl cellulose, 10mg Ethyl cellulose, amount of drug release 56.23 in 48 hrs. From formulations F1 to F9 shows cumulative percentage drug release in 48 hr in between 36.92% to 68.96%. The formulation F10, F13, F16 contains HPMC K 100,Eudragit Rs100, Ethyl cellulose, as a polymers in 1% concentration prepared by solvent evaporation method. These formulations subjected to drug release studies in 7.4 ph phosphate buffer as a dissolution medium. The formulation F10 that containing 1% HPMC K100, amount of the drug is release 42.28% in 48 hrs. . And the formulation F13 containing 1% Eudragit Rs 100, amount of the drug release 49.32 in 48hrs, The formulation F16 containing 1 % Ethyl cellulose , amount of the drug release 79.42in 48hrs. The formulation F11 that containing 20mg HPMC k 100, 10mg, Eudragit Rs 100, amount of drug is release 46.43 in 48hr. the formulation F12containing 10mg Ethyl cellulose, 20mgHPMC K 100, amount of drug release 53.67 in 48 hrs. The formulation F14 containing 20mg Eudragit Rs100, 10mgHPMC K 100 amount of drug release 55.86 in 48 hrs. the formulation F15 containing 20mg Eudragit, 10mgEthyl cellulose amount of drug release59.11 in 48hrs. The formulation F17 that containing 10mg HPMC k 100, 20mgEthyl cellulose, amount of drug is release 74.82 in 48hrs. the formulation F18containing 20mgEthyl cellulose, 10mg Ethyl cellulose, amount of drug release 65.24 in 48 hrs. From formulations F10 to F18 shows cumulative percentage drug release in 48 hr in between 42.28% to 79.42%. The release profiles showed a characteristic initial burst release followed by a lag period and further initiation of sustained release. After the initial lag, a nearly linear and continuous release was observed over 48 hr Comparison of in-vitro drug release profiles for all formulations F1to F9 and F10 to F18 are shown in Fig (7,8) and the data is shown in Tables (13,14). Effect of method of preparation Ionic gelation solvent evaporation 1. On particle size : From formulations F1to F9 are by ionic gelation method. Spheres obtained are larger than desired particle size range i.e 609-875. µm. formulations F10 to F18 are by solvent evaporation, are in desired particle size range i.e 191-303  µm. So that Spheres obtained are smaller than by ionic gelation method. 2. On Drug release: Drug release is sustained in formulations prepared by solvent evaporation than with ionic gelation. Therefore from above results solvent evaporation method is selected. Effect of polymers HPMC K100, Ethyl cellulose,Eudragit RS100 are three different polymers used as sustained release polymers. Formulations F1,F4,F7 by ionic gelation where as F10,F13,F16, by solvent evaporation are with single polymer respectively. Remaining all formulations are combination of two each polymers of respective ratios HPMC K100 is hydrophilic,Ethyl cellulose is hydrophobic nature.Combination of Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic polymers is tested at different ratios to determine effect on sustained drug release Also HPMC K100 with coating polymer Eudragit RS 100 combination is tested at different ratios Among all these ,F10 i.e,with single polymer HPMC K100 by solvent evaporation method shows desired drug release compared to combination of polymers. Therefore it is concluded that there is no effect of combination of polymers on drug release of paclitaxel microspheres. Kinetics of drug release from optimized formulation The kinetics of the drug release was evaluated by drug release rate models namely zero order, First order. The mechanisms of drug release was evaluated by First order drug release. The dissolution kinetics data was defected in table 15 and the comparative dissolution profile was given in the figure 9 . The drug release followed zero order kinetics in all polymers employed. The graph drawn in between time Vs cumulative % drug release show in figure 12 to 15.

Review of literature on Postoperative Pulmonary Complications

Review of literature on Postoperative Pulmonary Complications According to Polit and Hungler (1999) the task of reviewing research literature involves the task of reviewing research literature involves the identification, selection, critical analysis and written description of existing information on the topic. Related literature which was reviewed is discussed under the following headings. Studies related to overview of the postoperative pulmonary complications. Studies related to chest physiotherapy and incentive spirometry. Studies related to overview of postoperative pulmonary complications Soledad Chumillas (1998) posited that pulmonary function is commonly altered after surgery, particularly in patients who have had chest or upper abdominal surgery. The physiological changes observed are directly related to anaesthesia (general or regional) and to the type of incision and surgical technique employed, and are reflected by decreases in total pulmonary capacity and pulmonary volumes and by a parallel decrease in Pa02. Yoder (2009) said that thoracic and upper abdominal surgery is associated with a reduction in vital capacity by 50% and in functional residual capacity by 30%. Diaphragmatic dysfunction, postoperative pain, and splinting make these changes. After upper abdominal surgery, patients shift to a breathing pattern with which ribcage excursions and abdominal expiratory muscle activities increase. Postoperative patients maintain adequate minute volume, but the tidal volume is very low and the respiratory rate increases. These abnormal breathing patterns, along with the residual effects of anesthesia and postoperative analgesics, inhibit cough, impair mucociliary clearance, and contribute to the risk of postoperative pulmonary complications. David Warner (2005) described that many factors responsible for PPCs are related to disruption of the normal activity of the respiratory muscles, disruption that begins with the induction of anaesthesia and that may continue into the postoperative period. The effects of anaesthesia can persist into the postoperative period, though via different mechanisms, as the effects of surgical trauma come into play. These are most pronounced following thoracic and abdominal surgery, and arise from at least three mechanisms. First, functional disruption of respiratory muscles by incisions, even after surgical repair, may impair their effectiveness. Postoperative pain may cause voluntary limitation of respiratory function. Finally, stimulation of the viscera, such as provided by mechanical traction on the gallbladder or esophageal dilation, markedly decreases phrenic motor neurone output and changes the activation of other respiratory muscles, in general acting to minimize diaphragmatic descent. Other factors that may contribute to PPCs include: 1) Reflex stimulation during surgery, and release of inflammatory mediators by drug administration, increasing airway resistance and limiting expiratory gas flow from the lung; if severe this can produce hyperinflation with risk of barotrauma and gas exchange abnormalities. 2) Impairment of normal mucociliary transport by anaesthetic gasses and endotracheal intubation which may delay clearance of pathogens and promote retained secretions 3)Impairment of lung inflammatory cells function by prolonged anaesthesia and surgery, which could increase susceptibility to postoperative infections 4) Impaired upper airway reflexes postoperatively, with may increase the risk of aspiration, and 5) Incomplete reversal of neuromuscular blockade. Rochelle Wynne and Mari Botti (2004) postulated that the pathogenesis of postoperative pulmonary dysfunction is associated with anomalies in gas exchange, alterations in lung mechanics, or both. Abnormalities in gas exchange are evidenced by a widening of the alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient, increased micro vascular permeability in the lung, increased pulmonary vascular resistance, increased pulmonary shunt fraction, and intrapulmonary aggregation of leukocytes and platelets. Variations in the mechanical properties of the lung lead to reductions in vital capacity, functional residual capacity, and static and dynamic lung compliance. Woerlee (2009) listed certain performance criteria for the respiratory system of a surgical patient. They are: The lungs must have sufficient oxygen to oxygenate the blood. The pulmonary circulation must eliminate carbon dioxide from the body to prevent carbon dioxide accumulation. The client must be able to generate a productive cough, otherwise mucus accumulation will occur resulting in atelectasis and/or lung infection or pneumonia. The client must be able to significantly increase their respiratory minute volume to compensate for factors such as increased postoperative metabolic rate, elevated body temperature, possible infections, pneumonia, etc. Poor performance in significantly raising and sustaining an elevated respiratory minute volume results in exhaustion and respiratory failure. Postoperative pulmonary complications account for a substantial portion of the risks related to surgery and anaesthesia and are a source of postoperative morbidity, mortality and longer hospital stays. The current basis for our understanding of the nature of Postoperative pulmonary complications is weak; only a small number of high quality studies are available, a uniform definition has not emerged, and studies have focused on specific patients and kinds of surgeries. Current evidence suggests that risk factors for Postoperative pulmonary complications are related to the patients health status and the particular anaesthetic and surgical procedures chosen. Age, pre-existing respiratory and cardiac diseases, the use of general anaesthesia and overall surgical insult are the most significant factors associated with complications. Election of anaesthetic technique, postoperative analgesia and chest physiotherapy seem to be the preventive measures that are best supported by evidence. (J.C anet, V.Mazo, 2010) J.C.Hall ., et.al (1991)evaluated the relationship between postoperative pulmonary complications and various putative risk factors in a prospective longitudinal study of 1000 patients undergoing abdominal surgery. Transient subclinical events were studied by defining postoperative pulmonary complications as positive clinical findings in combination with either positive sputum microbiology, unexplained pyrexia, or positive chest roentgenographic findings. The overall incidence of postoperative pulmonary complications was 23.2%(232/1000). These findings supplies clinicians and clinical nurse with a simple means of identifying patients who are at high risk of postoperative pulmonary complications after abdominal surgery. Postoperative pulmonary complications contribute significantly to the overall perioperative morbidity and mortality. Pulmonary complications occur significantly more often in patients undergoing elective surgery of the thorax and abdomen. These include atelectasis, infections including bronchitis and pneumonia, respiratory failure and bronchospasm. Sharma (2000). The study findings of Brooks-Brunn (1995) revealed that atelectasis and infectious complications account for the majority of reported pulmonary complications. Risk factors were thought to exaggerate pulmonary function deterioration, which occurred both during and after surgical procedures. 18 risk factors were reviewed regarding their Pathophysiology, impact on preoperative, intra operative and postoperative pulmonary function in this study. Identification of risk factor and prediction of postoperative pulmonary complications are important. Preoperative assessment and identification of patients at risk for postoperative pulmonary complications can guide our respiratory care to prevent or minimize these complications. Postoperative pulmonary complications were investigated in a total of 41 paediatric recipients who underwent orthotopic liver transplantation. Atelectasis was seen in 40 cases (98%) of the 41 recipients, and occurred in the left lower lobe in 28 cases (68%), and in the right upper lobe in 25 cases (61%). Radiographic pulmonary edema occurred on 23 occasions in 18 recipients (45%). Five recipients experienced two episodes of pulmonary edema during their ICU stay. Pleural effusions were observed in 21 cases (52%), of which 18 had right sided effusion and 3 had bilateral effusions. Pneumothorax occurred in 3 cases. Pyothorax, hemothorax, bronchial asthma and subglottic granulation occurred in one case each. The present study demonstrated that postoperative pulmonary complications are frequently observed in paediatric recipients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation. (Toshihide et.al.,1994). Kanat et al., (2007) studied the risk factors for postoperative pulmonary complications in upper abdominal surgery. They concluded that pulmonary complications are the most frequent causes of postoperative morbidity and mortality in upper abdominal surgery. A prospective study on 60 consecutive patients was conducted who underwent elective upper abdominal surgery in general surgical unit. Each patients preoperative pulmonary status was assessed by an experienced chest physician using clinical examination, chest radiographs, spirometry, blood analysis, anaesthetical risks, surgical indications, operation time, incision type, duration of nasogastric catheter and mobilization time. Complications were observed in 35 patients (58.3%). The most complications were pneumonia followed by pneumonitis, atelectasis, bronchitis, pulmonary emboli and acute respiratory failure. They recommend a detailed pulmonary examinations and spirometry in patients who will undergo upper abdominal surgery by ch est physicians to identify the patients at high risk for postoperative pulmonary complications, to manage respiratory problems of the patients before surgery and also to help surgeons to take early measures in such patients before a most likely postoperative pulmonary complications occurrence. Serojo et al., (2007) in a prospective cohort study, studied risk factors for pulmonary complications after emergency abdominal surgery. Pertinent data were collected through interview and chart review and their association with the occurrence of postoperative pulmonary complications were analyzed. 286 consecutive children were included and 75 (28.2%) developed postoperative pulmonary complications. Pulmonary complications are frequent among children undergoing abdominal surgery and lead to increased length of hospital stay and death rate. Kilpadi ,et al., (1999) in a prospective study of respiratory complications, conducted a study for a period of six months with total samples of 584 patients, who underwent elective or emergency surgery. He found that 81 of them had 13.9% of respiratory complications, 68% had pneumonia and others included pleural effusion, empyema and exacerbation of asthma. Felardo et al., (2002) investigated the postoperative pulmonary complications after upper abdominal surgery. Two hundred and eighty three patients were followed from pre to postoperative period. A protocol including a questionnaire, physical examination, thoracic radiogram and spirometry was used during preoperative period. Sixty nine (24.4%) patients had pulmonary complications in 87 events registered. Pneumonia was the most frequent event 34% (30/87) followed by atelectasis 24% (21/87), broncho constriction 17% (15/87), acute respiratory failure 13% (11/87), prolonged mechanical ventilation 9% (8/87) and bronchial infection 2% (2/87). Pulmonary complications occurs more frequently than cardiac complications. The complication rates for upper abdominal and thoracic surgery are the highest. A better understanding of the risk factors associated with postoperative pulmonary complications is essential to develop strategies for reducing these complications. In any individual patient the benefit from a surgical procedure should be weighed against the risks it imposes. When possible, stabilization of respiratory status is advisable before surgery. (Muhammed Aslam, Syed Hussain, 2005). Decline in pulmonary function after major abdominal surgery is thought to be identified in daily assessment by observation of breathing and pain intensity. Measurement of pulmonary function is usually not included in the assessment of the patient in postoperative period. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between clinical observation of breathing and decline in pulmonary function and pain. Eighty nine patients admitted for elective major, mild and upper abdominal surgery, participated in the study. Clinical observation of breathing covered the following parameters like abdominal expansion, side expansion, high thoracic expansion, paradoxical breathing, symmetry of thorax expansion, ability to huff and signs of mucus retention. Pain intensity was assessed at rest and during breathing exercises and during coughing using a visual analogue scale. Peak expiratory flow rate were performed on the preoperative day and for seven postoperative day. A poor correlation is found between clinical observation of breathing and pulmonary function after abdominal surgery. (Johannes vandeleor et al ., 2003). Fung et al., (2010) compared postoperative respiratory complications in obese and nonobese children following surgery for sleep-disordered breathing. All obese children who had undergone adenotonsillectomy for sleep-disordered breathing from 2002 to 2007 were compared with age- and gender-matched controls. Length of hospital stay and the incidence, severity, and location of respiratory complications were compared.  Forty-nine obese children were identified (20:29, female: male). Overall, 37 obese children (75.5%) and 13 controls (26.5%) incurred complications (P = 0.000). Ten obese patients and two controls incurred major events (P = 0.012); 36 obese children had minor complications versus 12 controls (P = 0.000). Obese children had significantly more upper airway obstruction (19 vs. 4, P = 0.0003), particularly during the immediate postoperative period. The mean hospital stay was significantly longer for the obese group (18 vs. 8 hours, P = 0.000, mean difference of 10 hours). He concluded that Obesity in children significantly increases the risk of respiratory complications following surgery for sleep-disordered breathing. Sixty patients were studied to determine the incidence of postoperative pulmonary complications and the value of preoperative spirometry in producing pulmonary complications after upper abdominal surgery. On the day before the operation and for 15 days after the operation, each patients respiratory status was assessed by clinical examinations, chest x-ray, spirometry and blood gas analysis. A chest physician and surgeon monitored patients for pulmonary complications independently. In this study postoperative pulmonary complications developed in 21(35%) patients (pneumonia in 10 patient, bronchitis in 9 patients, atelectasis in 1 patient, pulmonary embolism in 1 patient) of 31 patients with abnormal preoperative spirometry, 14 patients showed normal preoperative spirometry, 7 patients showed complications. It was concluded that postoperative pulmonary complications was still a serious cause of postoperative morbidity. (Kocabas et al.,1996). Study conducted by Ephgrave et al., (1993) revealed that postoperative pneumonia was a major complication that had been linked to micro aspiration of pathogens originating in the gastrointestinal tract. 140 patients who had undergone major surgeries were selected. Postoperative pneumonia is present in 26 (18.6%) of 140 patients. Postoperative pneumonia is a morbid postoperative complications associated with presence of gastric bacteria during operation and transmission of gastric bacteria to the pulmonary tree after surgery. Studies related to chest physiotherapy and incentive spirometry Chest physiotherapy is an important therapy in the treatment of respiratory illness. It is very important to carry out this procedure in children for the purpose of loosening secretions from the lungs. Morran, et al., (1993) has done a randomized controlled trial on physiotherapy for postoperative pulmonary complications. A sample size of 102 patients undergoing cholecystectomy were assigned to control group and study group. The patients in the control group did not receive chest physiotherapy, while patients in the study group received chest physiotherapy. The study proved that without chest physiotherapy 21 patients developed atelectasis and 19 patients developed chest infections whereas with chest physiotherapy 15 patients developed atelectasis and 7 developed chest infection and 40 patients developed no complication. The author concluded that routine prophylactic chest physiotherapy significantly decreased frequency of chest infection (p

Italian City :: History

Italian City The Renaissance was the period from 1350-1600. The Renaissance began first in the city-states of Italy for many reasons. Although most of Europe had become a big economic crisis during the late Middle Ages, Italy managed to avoid everything and their towns remained important centers of Mediterranean trade and boost their production of textiles and luxury goods. Town life was bigger in Italy than in other parts of Europe. Therefore, most Italians could easily discard feudalism and other medieval institutions. Because Italy was wealthy and successful, they became independent city-states, each of which included a walled urban center and the surrounding countryside. The Italian city-states started a new social order. It was that wealth and ability mattered more than aristocratic titles and ownership of land. Wealthy merchants and bankers replaced the nobles in the upper class. Shopkeepers and artisans ranked below the wealthy merchants, forming a moderately prosperous middle class that employed a lot of poor workers. Most of these workers came from the countryside. And at the very bottom of the social ladder, were the peasants who worked on the country estates for the wealthy classes. During the Renaissance, Italy was not under one government, but was divided into the city-states. Each of these were ruled by wealthy families whose fortunes came from commercial trading or banking. A lot of times, workers rebelled against the upper classes. Their demands for equal rights and lower taxes, however, remained unspoken. During the 1400s, social conflicts became so bad, that many city-states decided to turn over all political authority to one single powerful leader to restore peace. These leaders were known as signori. At times, city-states would have territorial disputes. Since military service would interfere with conducting business and trade, the signori chose to replace citizen-soldiers with hired soldiers known as condottieri. The major city-states were Florence, Venice, Rome and Milan. A banking family known as the Medici ruled Florence in the 1400s. The Medici rulers helped to keep the spirit of humanism alive in the city-state’s scholars and artists. With the spirit alive, Florence became known as the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance. Lorenzo de’ Medici (also known as â€Å"the Magnificent† as a result of the city’s prosperity and fame) ruled Florence from 1469-1492. He used his wealth to support artists, philosophers, and writers, and to sponsor public festivals. During the 1490s, Florence’s economic prosperity began to decline due to increasing competition with English and Flemish cloth makers.

The Yellow Wallpaper -- Literacy Analysis

Are asylums meant to shelter the affected persons or to help society flee away from abnormalities that are inevitable in human life? What are the consequences of keeping a person kept captive behind these so called ‘shelters’? These questions are some of the many that are inquired in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Within the lines of the obscure plot in this short story, the author makes it clear that the unnamed protagonist was not, in fact, insane or suffering from a definitive disease or mental malfunction. However, this ‘mental disorder’ is only a way that the narrator actively rebels against society and how patriarchy has restricted her into becoming a heap of insecure thoughts. In the introduction of the story the unnamed narrator describes her ‘illness’ and the ‘conditions’ she faces, however through the analysis of her writing she begins to reveal the oppression that she is forced to submit to. Much of the protagonist’s oppression comes from her husband, as he does not believe she is sick at all. Because she is timid and is subdued by her spouse she believes, like the rest of society, that a male’s qualifications can automatically make him right. The narrator tends to question her husband’s view, but then covers it up with his credentials in her private journal entries, â€Å"You see he does not believe I am sick! And what can one do? If a physician of high standing, and one's own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the matter with one but temporary nervous depression -- a slight hysterical tendency -- what is one to do?† (Gilman Wallpaper, 1) This is only the beginning of the oppression and the beginning of the narrator’s rebellion against a society controlled by men. The au... ...nd The Yellow Wallpaper. Works Cited Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "Why I Wrote 'The Yellow Wallpaper.'." The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper,". Ed. Catherine Golden. New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1992. 51-53. Rpt. in Short Story Criticism. Ed. Janet Witalec. Vol. 62. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper. [New York]: Feminist, 1973. Print. Knight, Denise D. "'I am getting angry enough to do something desperate': The Question of Female 'Madness.'." "The Yellow Wall-Paper" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: A Dual-Text Critical Edition. Ed. Shawn St. Jean. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006. 73-87. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Vol. 201. Detroit: Gale, 2008. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. The Yellow Wallpaper -- Literacy Analysis Are asylums meant to shelter the affected persons or to help society flee away from abnormalities that are inevitable in human life? What are the consequences of keeping a person kept captive behind these so called ‘shelters’? These questions are some of the many that are inquired in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Within the lines of the obscure plot in this short story, the author makes it clear that the unnamed protagonist was not, in fact, insane or suffering from a definitive disease or mental malfunction. However, this ‘mental disorder’ is only a way that the narrator actively rebels against society and how patriarchy has restricted her into becoming a heap of insecure thoughts. In the introduction of the story the unnamed narrator describes her ‘illness’ and the ‘conditions’ she faces, however through the analysis of her writing she begins to reveal the oppression that she is forced to submit to. Much of the protagonist’s oppression comes from her husband, as he does not believe she is sick at all. Because she is timid and is subdued by her spouse she believes, like the rest of society, that a male’s qualifications can automatically make him right. The narrator tends to question her husband’s view, but then covers it up with his credentials in her private journal entries, â€Å"You see he does not believe I am sick! And what can one do? If a physician of high standing, and one's own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the matter with one but temporary nervous depression -- a slight hysterical tendency -- what is one to do?† (Gilman Wallpaper, 1) This is only the beginning of the oppression and the beginning of the narrator’s rebellion against a society controlled by men. The au... ...nd The Yellow Wallpaper. Works Cited Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "Why I Wrote 'The Yellow Wallpaper.'." The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper,". Ed. Catherine Golden. New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1992. 51-53. Rpt. in Short Story Criticism. Ed. Janet Witalec. Vol. 62. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper. [New York]: Feminist, 1973. Print. Knight, Denise D. "'I am getting angry enough to do something desperate': The Question of Female 'Madness.'." "The Yellow Wall-Paper" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: A Dual-Text Critical Edition. Ed. Shawn St. Jean. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006. 73-87. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Vol. 201. Detroit: Gale, 2008. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. 10 Feb. 2012.

Death of a Salesman & Brother Dear Comparison Essay

Throughout the constant journey of life you are often under pressure. There is pressure to satisfy, pressure you put on yourself and the pressure that other people put on you. Throughout the play Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller and the short story â€Å"Brother Dear† by Bernice Friesen, the characters find themselves facing these pressures on a daily basis. Both plotlines show how people can experience these pressures, for all different reasons, during various times in their life. In Death of a Salesman, Biff, a son of the main character, Willy, is struggling with the pressure to impress his father and satisfy him. Willy is constantly complaining about Biff, saying he is a bum and is not good. One day Biff decides he is going to try to go into business, just like his father, hoping to make Willy happy. He speaks to his mother about this, â€Å"It’s just-you see, Mom, I don’t fit in business. Not that I won’t try. I’ll try, and I’ll make good† (Miller 60). Biff knows that he will not be successful in the business world and that it is not for him, but he is going to try it anyways just so his Dad will be proud of him. The pressure to satisfy his father is so big that Biff is willing to do something he does not want to do just to make him happy. Similarly, in â€Å"Brother Dear† Greg is also under the pressure to satisfy his father. Greg wants to be a member of Green Peace, plant trees, and save the planet, while his father expects him to go to University, like his older brother, and make something of himself. His younger sister Sharlene explains, â€Å"He’s in pre-law at university, but his marks are crap. I think he went into law just because Dennis did and Dad hasn’t stopped sheering† (Friesen 3). Just like Biff, Greg is doing something he is uninterested in just to make his Dad happy and proud. Schneider 2 Coming to the end of Death of a Salesman, Biff finally, after all of the hurt and stress, puts some pressure on himself to confront his father. â€Å"I stole myself out of every good job since high school! † â€Å"And whose fault is that? † â€Å"And I never got anywhere because you blew me so full of hot air I could never stand taking orders from anybody! That’s whose fault it is! † (Miller 131) All of Biff’s pressure makes him blow and tell his father the truth about why he has never been successful. Greg’s father in â€Å"Brother Dear† is constantly putting pressure on Greg to do good in school and make something of himself. However Greg does not want to do what his Dad wants, but what he wants. Eventually, after years of pressure, Greg applies pressure onto himself to tell his father his real plans. He tells his Dad how he got a job planting trees for the summer, so he no longer has to pay his rent anymore. When his father questions how he will make enough money for rent and tuition Greg responds saying, â€Å"I’m not going back to school† (Friesen 4). Just like Biff, Greg makes himself confess and tell his father the truth about his life. Throughout Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman has a huge amount of pressure on him from his family and those around him. He has pressure from his wife to get money to pay bills, pressure from his sons to â€Å"get himself together† and pressure from hid friends to do better. All of this pressure makes Willy act crazy. One day, while he was asking a friend for a loan he states, â€Å"Funny y’know? After all the highways, and the trains, and the appointments, and the years, you end up worth more dead than alive† (Miller 98). Willy is implying the he in under so much pressure, he often wishes he were dead so he could be relieved. Schneider 3 In â€Å"Brother Dear†, Sharlene, Greg’s younger sister, is also feeling the pressure in her family to get an education and be something. Like Greg, she has dreams of her own. â€Å"†¦next year’s grade twelve, then it’s escape to the University of Alberta†¦Like Dad wants. I have dreams of running off to Europe for a couple of years, being a nanny and learning a language or two†¦I’ll tell Dad I’ll do the university thing when I get back. He’ll probably explode anyways† (Friesen 2). Sharlene is torn between following her dreams or doing as Daddy wants. Overall, throughout life you often have pressure put on you. The characters in both Death of a Salesman and â€Å"Brother Dear† are all under the pressure to satisfy, the pressure of themselves and the pressure of others. Whether the pressure be to get a job, go to school or be something, they all experience pressures throughout their journey of life.

Beliefs And Social And Political Influences That Have Shaped Contemporary Service Provision

This essay will give information about different pieces of legislation including Education Act (1944), The Mary Warnock Report (1978), and ‘Every Child Matters’ (2003). The essay is also going to discuss The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) 2007. In May 1940 Britain had been at war and shortly after Neville Chamberlain who was conservative Prime Minister was forced to resign due to the lack of confidence in his party. He was later replaced by Winston Churchill.In October 1940 Herwald Ramsbotham who was president of the Board of Education, met with senior officers to discuss the Prime Minister Winston Churchill’s ideal of; â€Å"establishing a state of society where the advantages and privileges which hitherto have been enjoyed only by the few, shall be far more widely shared by the men and youth of the nation as a whole† (Taylor (1977) cited in Gillard, 2011, p2). After discussions with Winston Churchill the board’s proposals became known as the à ¢â‚¬ËœGreen Book’ this was then formed a piece of legislation which is now known as The Education Act 1944.It was later discussed that there should be three stages of education which would be primary, secondary and further. Which is still in place in today’s society (Gillard, 2011). This is good because children are now taught through stages however it is also a bad idea because not all children develop through the stages, some children will understand one topic more than another or there may be a child who was to have a learning difficulty and then this would mean that the child will develop when they are ready and it may not be in stages they may take longer or they miss a stage and jumping to the next stage .Once this was brought out they then ended the existing differentiation between elementary and secondary (Gillard 2011). In 1941 Rab Butler who was president board of education introduced free secondary education which happened for the first time in the UK (Parli ament UK, 2012). Since the 1944 act has been brought out this has been reviewed three times since and there are now three Education Acts in place. Before the war there was no free secondary school education you had to pay and only the upper class families were able to pay for the facilities (Aldrich, 2002).However after the war the society had changed and the government wanted to try and make life better for everybody (Lowe, 1988). They did this by introducing free secondary education, and they also introduced council houses so that the lower class families were able to have a stable home for themselves and their children. The government also introduced free health care, so that if the children or adults needed any medical attention they were able to get this free of charge. At this time, the government introduced the 11 plus test.Most of the time the children who came from a richer background ended up in the private fee paid schools, and the children that were in the lower class fa milies ended up in the less advantaged schools (Lowe, 1988). The 1944 Act recognised that children’s education should be based on their age, talent and ability. However, as Childs ( 2006) points out: â€Å"the 11 plus came to be seen as a test that discriminated strongly, if not deliberately, against the working class† (p. 93) From discussing the Children Act this essay is now going to go on to discussing the Warnock Report.Mary Warnock was involved in Special Educational Needs (SEN). She is now known as Baroness Warnock. The Warnock report looked at the statementing of children and also looked at whether children with a SEN could be taught in mainstream schools. Putting this in place made it so that there was small specialist school provision available. This report highlighted that children who had a special education need, were more likely to be bullied in a mainstream school. However this isn’t always the case as not all children with an educational need will get bullied in a mainstream school.If the child had behavioural difficulties then there is a longer time for the statement process. However when the report was renewed in 2005, Baroness Warnock stated that statements aren’t a good idea and should only be retained as a safety net (Douglas Silas Solicitors, 2012). From discussing the Mary Warnock Report this essay is now going to talk about the Green Paper Act which is also known as ‘Every Child Matters’. Every Child Matters Green paper (2003) was published shortly after the death of Victoria Climbie and was put in place to change children’s services.This legislation has five key outcomes that will help children in child hood through to later life. The five key outcomes are making sure children: stay safe, enjoy and achieve, be healthy, achieve economic well-being and making a positive contribution. The framework made sure that the multi-agency partnerships such as health visitors and social services were p ut into place so that it gave children the best opportunity to succeed to their full potential and bring out the best in children. From the Every Child Matters Green Paper legislation this then led to the creation of Common Assessment Framework which is also known as (CAF).By bringing this in it made sure that all of the agencies working with children understand the individual needs for the children. CAF forms led to meetings which brought together the agencies which made sure the Ever Child Matters plan is met and followed (Department for Education, 2012a). Following on from the Green Paper this essay is now going to start discussing the Early Years foundation stage. The Early Years Foundation Stage was introduced in 2007 and was made compulsory from 1st September 2008.This was then revised in 2012. The aim was to set the standards for learning, development and care for children from the ages of birth to five years. This piece of legislation is in place to help children achieve the five ‘Every Child Matters’ outcomes which were listed above. The EYFS does this by setting the standards and making sure that all children are achieving whilst they are in the care of the setting and makes sure that the children make progress and that no child gets left behind (Department for Education, 2012b).The EYFS addresses equal opportunities by making sure that every child is included and not left out because of their: ethnicity, culture or religion, gender, home language or family background and any learning difficulties the child may have or their ability. The EYFS aims to create the framework for partnership working. They do this by working with the children’s parents and professionals and they pass on information between the settings that the child attends.The EYFS also improved the quality and consistency for children by getting rid of the existing frameworks, and providing the basis for the inspection and regulation regime. Finally they laid a secur e foundation for future learning, this meant that the child care practitioners were planning to meet the individual needs of the children. They also carried out regular observations on the children so that they were able to recognise if there are any changes in the child’s development. It could be suggested that these outcomes have a big impact on the way the setting is run.Without these outcomes the nursery setting wouldn’t know where they are at with assessments. However it could be argued that there is some degree of difference between settings and practitioners as to how well the planning and assessments are carried out. The EYFS is a central part of a ten year childcare strategy that was bought out in 2007. This shows that legislation isn’t always going to work and sometimes will need reviewing so that it can be made better and more up to date. However sometimes they don’t change anything it is just a review to make sure that everything is still bein g run the same.Within the EYFS the work for all practitioners are grouped into four distinct but complementary themes which are: a unique child, making sure the children have positive relationships, having enabling environments which means that the nursery has to have bright displays up and look welcoming and also making sure that the children are learning and developing at the right stage of their development. Since the Early Years foundation stage has been introduced it is now known that children enjoy and learn more when learning through play (Pramling-Samuelsson and Fleer, 2009).It is important that the children are able to make their own choices and left to explore by themselves as long as they are safe this is how most observations are done, during the child’s natural free flow play. By this you are then able to see how the child interacts with other children, what they enjoy doing, the way in which they explore and also what they found out from playing/exploring. From this the practitioner is then able to plan and implement from this to encourage the children to learn.â€Å"A good free play session offers a rich play and learning experience for children. It allows each child to progress at his/her own pace, it gives children practice in choosing, and in dealing with the consequences of choice, and it encourages a more flexible and open-ended use of the group’s resources. Like all genuine freedom, however, it takes a lot of effort† (Henderson 2010, cited in Lewis, 2011, p 1). However some children are more advanced and would prefer learn at a faster speed doing written work rather plan playing.On the other hand it is good because it does give children chance to explore and learn at their own stage rather than them feeling like they are being rushed along. Which means the child will learn to be strong and independent which will be learnt through loving and secure relationships with parents/carers. Children also look at displays within the setting to support their development This essay discusses how The Education Act (1944) has made an influence on today’s society. The Education Act brought in the three stages of education; primary, secondary and higher.These are still in place in today’s society, it also brought in free education and changed the way children learn. The children went from not going to school unless they could afford to pay to now being able to go to school free of charge. In today’s society they don’t take into account your welfare and background which is a good thing as children don’t have anything in the way which could affect them from learning. In 1978 The Mary Warnock report was introduced which influenced on how children with a special educational need was assessed and it was then later reviewed in 2005.Another piece of legislation that has been discussed within the essay is Every Child Matters this piece of legislation looks at all frameworks working tog ether so that children; stay safe, enjoy and achieve, be healthy, achieve economic well-being and making a positive contribution. Finally this essay has talked about The Early Years Foundation Stage which was brought out in 2007, and made compulsory in 2008. It is still in place in today’s society and has been revised in 2012.

Morphology Is a Valid Strategy for High School Students Essay

Theoretical Explanation Many researchers have proposed that teaching students word roots unlocks the meanings of unknown words. The majority of words in the English language have origins from Greek and Latin. Ninety percent of English words over one syllable are Latin based, and the remaining 10 percent are Greek based (Rasinski, Padak, Newton, & Newton, (2008, p. 11). Just as phonics teaches word families, Greek and Latin roots will help students sound out words and determine the meanings of words (Padak, Newton, Rasinski, and Newton (2008, p. 29). Nagy & Anderson, 1984, found morphology played an important role in learning vocabulary by allowing students to make semantic connections between related word families. They concluded, â€Å"The ability to utilize morphological relatedness among words puts a student at a distinct advantage in dealing with unfamiliar words† (p.323). While research supports the teaching of word roots, no formalized instruction in roots exists at my high school. Purpose of my study: Students need vocabulary deciphering strategies in high school. Morphology is a valid strategy for high school students to improve vocabulary. Studies also show an increase in reading comprehension and spelling. Third through sixth grade students performed better on reading and spelling with morphophonemic training than with just training in phonics (Henry 1988, 1989, 1993). In the study, â€Å"Contributions of Morphology Beyond Phonology to Literacy Outcomes of Upper Elementary and Middle-School Students,† Nagy, Abbott, and  Berninger (2006) found â€Å"Results showed that when the shared variance among morphological awareness, phonological working memory, and phonological decoding are controlled statistically, morphological awareness contributes †¦at all grade levels to reading comprehension, reading vocabulary, and spelling† (p. 143). â€Å"Corson, a British sociologist, even suggests that it is differences in language ability, more than any other observable factor, that affects children’s potential for success in school. He makes the point that learning the Latin and Greek word roots allows children to begin learning the ‘specialist’ words in contrast to the Anglo-Saxon ‘performance’ vocabulary. He suggests that some social groups do not learn these special words in their natural environment. â€Å"(1985, p.28). The purpose of this study is to develop student morphemic awareness and increase their knowledge of the meanings of word roots including prefixes and suffixes. New avenues of learning roots will be explored. The goal is to improve students’ potential to decipher the meaning of new vocabulary. Learning Targets First, students will be able to divide multi syllable words into word parts or morphemes. On Ellen Gagnà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s level of complexity in human skills, using Discrimination students can identify and separate roots, prefixes, or suffixes in a word. Next, students will learn the meanings of common prefixes, suffixes and roots. Ellen Gagnà © would label Greek and Latin roots Defined Concepts. I hope to show students will be able to determine a word’s meaning based on their knowledge of the word’s parts. Ellen Gagnà © would label this Higher Order Rules. Students will need to apply their previously learned definitions, to form a new definition of a new word. Area of Focus Roots to be studied will be pulled from various resources including: Stauffer, 1942, identified the fifteen most common prefixes from the 10,000 words in the Thorndike Word Book: ab (from) ,ad (to),be (by),com (with),de (from),en (in),ex (out),in (into), in (not),pre (before), pro (in front of), re (back), sub (under), un (not) (pg. 455). â€Å"Brown (1947) noted that 80% of the English words borrowed from other languages come to us from Latin and Greek and make up approximately 60% of our language. He analyzed Latin and Greek word roots and concluded that 12 Latin and 2 Greek roots, along with 20 of the most frequently used prefixes would generate an estimated 100,000 words (see Table 1)†(Henry, 1993).Brown’s fourteen roots: 1.tent, ten, tin, tain 2.mit,miss, mitt 3.cap,capt, cip,cept , 4. 14. scribe,script 5. sat, stat, sist 6. graph,gram 7. log,logy 8.spect 9. plic,pled, 10.ply11. tens,tend, tent 12.duc,duct 13. pos,pon 14. face,tic, fact Padak, Newton, Rasinski, and Newton (2008) identified a series of level 1, level 2, and level 3 roots for primary, intermediate and middle school students (pgs. 12-15). Their lists includes prefixes, suffixes, and bases (roots) from both Latin and Greek. The Least You Should Know about Vocabulary Building by Glazier, Friend, & Knight.  Greek & Latin Roots:Keys to Building Vocabulary by Rasinski, Padak, Newton & Newton. Past Problems Achieving Learning Targets My school does not teach Latin. Also, vocabulary building is not built into the English standards. Students without previous exposure to word roots, suffixes, and prefixes will not get additional exposure at our high school. The school I teach at draws students from 27 different towns throughout northwestern Connecticut. Students do not come with a consistent core of learned roots. Significance Students need to increase their vocabulary to be able to read and comprehend complex texts. Students that can use context clues and knowledge of word origins to decipher a new word’s meaning. Students need to interpret vocabulary for standardized tests, when reading their textbooks, and other daily reading. â€Å"If†¦it is one’s goal top promote generalized vocabulary acquisition by equipping readers with strategies that will enhance their independent vocabulary learning, then instruction in morphemic and contextual analysis becomes the preferred approach† (Baumann et al. 452). â€Å"The language of school, especially in the upper grades, is often driven by content area texts. Most of the speciality words in math, science, and social studies come from Latin and Greek origin† (Henry, 1993). Research Question I am interested to know if students can increase their ability to define unknown words if they have knowledge of dividing words into morphemes and have learned prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Learning Plan Ideas wiki/notebook flash cards/virtual flashcards/app for I touch/I Pad/I Phone i touch applications Resources Baumann, James F. , & Edwards, Elizabeth Carr, Font, George, Tereshinski, Cathleen A. , Kame’enui, Edward J., Olejnik, Stephen. (2002). Teaching morphemic and contextual analysis to fifth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly. 2, 150-176. Baumann, James F., Boland, Eileen M., & Edwards, Elizabeth Carr, & Olejnik, Stephen, & Kame’enui, Edward J. (2003). Vocabulary tricks: Effects of instruction in morphology and context on fifth-grade students’ability to derive and infer word meanings. American Educational Research Journal. 40, 447-494. Bromley, Karen. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. 7, 528-537. Brunner, Brett L. (2006). Word Empire:A Utilitarian Approach to Word Power Brett L. Brunner, M.A. Star Nemeton Educational Innovations, LLC Bryant, Peter, & Hurry, Jane, & Nunes, Terezinha, & Pretzlik, Ursula (2006). Improving literacy by teaching morphemes. New York, NY: Routledge Carlisle, Joanne F, & Stone, Addison C. (2005). Exploring the role of morphemes in word reading. Reading Research Quarterly. 4, 428-449. Fresch, Mary Jo (2007). Word study: Ways to captivate reluctant learners. Adolescent Literacy in Perspective. March, 8-11. Glazier, Teresa Ferster, Knight, Laura, & Friend, Carol. (2004). The least you should know about vocabulary building: Word roots. Wadsworth Publishing Green, Tamara M (2008). Greek & Latin roots of English. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Haag, E Stern (2003). In search of the benefits of learning Latin. Journal of Educational Psychology 95, 174-178. Henry, Marcia. (1993). Morphological structure: Latin and Greek roots and affixes as upper grade code strategies. Reading and Writing. 2, 227-241. Holmes, Thomas C., & Keffer, Ronald L (1995). A computerized method to teach Latin and Greek root words: Effect on verbal SAT Scores. The Journal of Educational Research. 1, 47-50. Langer, Judith A. (2001). Beating the Odds: Teaching Middle and High School Students to Read and Write Well. American Educational Research Journal 40, 447-494. Menn, Lise, & Peters, Ann M, (1993). False starts and filler syllables: Ways to learn grammatical morphemes. Language. 4, 742-777. Nagy, William E., Anderson, Richard C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly. 19, 303-330. Nagy, William, Abbott, Robert D., & Berninger, Virginia W. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology 98, 134-147. Newton, Rick M., & Newton, Evangeline (2005). A little Latin†¦a lot of English. Adolescent Literacy in Perspective. June, 2-7. Otterman, Lois. (1955). The value of teaching prefixes and word-roots. The Journal of Educational Research, 8, 611-616. Padak, Nancy, & Newton, Rick M., & Newton, Evaneline, & Bromley, Karen (2008). Greek and Latin roots: Keys to building vocabulary. HuntingtonBeach, CA: Shell Education. Padak, Nancy, & Newton, Evangeline & Rasinski, Timothy, & Newton, Rick M. (2008). Getting to the root of word study: teaching latin and greek word roots in elementary and middle grades. In Farstrup, Alan E., & Samuels, S. Jay, What research has to say about vocabulary instruction (6-31). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Scanlan, Richard, T. (1976). A computer-assisted-instruction course in vocabulary building through Latin and Greek roots. Foreign Language Annals. 6, 579-583. Stauffer, Russell G. (1942). A Study of prefixes in the Thorndike List to establish a list of prefixes that should be taught in the elementary school. The Journal of Educational Research. 6, 453-458.